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By Douglas Anele
The growing uncertainties of the present have led to the questioning of received basic assumptions hitherto taken for granted and deepened disenchantment with settled traditional world outlooks derived from religion and culture. Nowadays, the quest is on for more satisfactory bases of certainty, knowledge and values that also accommodate the incredible global changes and innovations that spring from science and technology. Presently, we live in a world of incredible opportunities within the penumbra of tantalising uncertainties, with the current developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) adding a new dimension to the precariousness of the future.
The brief historical sketch of scepticism in philosophy presented above provides a useful context for a better comprehension of the broad contours of scepticism over time, and how it can contribute positively to human development. For example, the Enlightenment period which opened the door to the scientific and cultural progress in Europe and her cultural colonies in North America in subsequent centuries is one of the most important fruits of scepticism.
As we have seen from the preceding discussion, while some philosophers have questioned the possibility of actually knowing anything at all, others have raised doubts regarding the epistemic credentials of specific knowledge-claims and methodologies. Now, imagine that at one extreme there is complete credulity and at the other total scepticism, one can rank individual’s attitude towards knowledge-claims or beliefs systems between these two extremes. Willingness to believe any proposition without regard to evidence is definitely inimical to the acquisition of trustworthy knowledge that promotes productive and fulfilling existence, whilst the extreme sceptical claim that noting is, or can be, known is self-defeating and should be ignored since if true then we do not know or cannot know that we know nothing. A more rewarding way of looking at scepticism is to see it as a challenge or interrogation of -claims made in a particular discipline or area of human activity, which in turn depends on the form and nature of the discipline or activity under consideration. The implication here is that, generally speaking, to be a sceptic is to request for the reason(s), justification or basis for accepting a particular assertion or belief as true, coupled with the refusal to accept any claim except sufficient evidence is presented. More often than not, such a request is motivated by the suspicion that the reason or justification might be unsatisfactory or inadequate.
Although scepticism in philosophy, particularly those variants of it that lean too closely to the extreme, has been criticised for good reasons, a healthy dose of the sceptical attitude is important both in every serious intellectual pursuit and in everyday living. In philosophy, scepticism has functioned as an intellectual gadfly against dogmatic philosophical theories and systems presented as if they are eternal verities beyond the penetrating searchlight of rational inquiry, thereby encouraging philosophers to be intellectually honest in their postulations, and helping to clarify the infrastructure of claims to knowledge. As a result, scepticism has contributed a lot to intellectual progress by triggering continuous re-examination of philosophical ideas and theories leading to new doctrines which try to avoid the errors or difficulties of previous ones. It has spawned new perspectives on different topics and novel ingenious criticisms, including penetrating criticisms of criticisms. Were it not for sceptics, it would have been a herculean task to separate beliefs backed by sufficient evidence from opinions based on prejudice, superstition or popular enthusiasm. Of course, the progressive sanitising effects of the questioning attitude in philosophy have also been replicated with impressive outcomes in other fields of intellectual endeavour particularly in the sciences where revolutionary developments occur from time to time largely due to stubborn anomalies that generated scepticism about accepted theories.
Surely, given that intellectual reflection is the natural endowment of human beings as such irrespective of race and culture, and also that no worldview or opinion on the perennial problems that ignite philosophical reflection is error-proof, it is reasonable to infer that philosophers in other parts of the world such as Africa, Asia, and the Americas, like their counterparts in Europe, questioned the received belief systems of their cultures. Aristotle was correct when he affirmed that it was through wonder that humans began to philosophise. To wonder about the mysteries of the universe entails scepticism, and anywhere there is tolerance of scepticism the probability of progress is higher than where dogmatism predominates because whatever answers to the perennial problems of philosophy offered at any point in time can always be revised whenever new relevant evidence that challenges them becomes available.
For the average human being and the society generally, what is the value of scepticism, the attitude of doubting, of suspending judgement when evidence is inadequate? The short answer is – scepticism is invaluable for both since it is virtually impossible to overestimate the value of the sceptical attitude. This can be illustrated by focusing attention on two domains in which the sceptical attitude is of utmost importance, namely, politics and religion.
In politics, or more precisely, the established system for authoritative allocation of power, resources, and responsibilities to members of a society, supporters of western multi-party democracy, on one hand, and those in favour of autocracy or totalitarianism (as practised in China and Russia) on the other, tend to accept uncritically certain claims about the superiority of one over the other. It is clear that each of these political arrangements (and its cognate economic system) has both advantages and disadvantages. But those in favour of each system often ignore this and cling dogmatically to the one they prefer usually without sufficient evidence or justification. In this connection, the repressive character of authoritarianism makes it unacceptable to those who cherish individual freedom and protection of basic human rights. But although there are reasonable grounds for preferring liberal democracy to authoritarianism, philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Hegel have pointed out the weaknesses of democracy, such as its tendency to breed damaging political differences and engendering mediocrity in leadership. Besides, there are good reasons to be sceptical about the suitability of western-style democracy for African countries where modern democratic institutions, traditions, and culture are yet to emerge and take root. A good example is Nigeria, a country bedevilled by poor political leadership or kakistocracy, that is, government by the worst citizens. Although the late literary icon, Prof. Chinua Achebe, in his little book, The Trouble with Nigeria, noted that the problem is more of poor leadership than the system of democratic governance as such, there is no doubt that perhaps Nigerians in general are not ready yet intellectually, morally, and economically for democracy. That said, Nigerians need to adopt the sceptical attitude towards their leaders and be prepared to demand accountability from them. In addition, they should not accept lock, stock and barrel the sugar-coated promises of politicians especially during campaigns since experience has shown that once they get into office their primary objective is to satisfy their bulimic quest for primitive accumulation. Effective democratic praxis requires a certain level of enlightenment amongst the people on the need to put political office holders on their toes through creative mobilisation of their collective will. Non-violent protests and civil disobedience, for instance, are recognised globally as acceptable means of bringing about improved governance and positive change in the society.
If there is any aspect of human activity where scepticism is needed, and urgently too, it is in religion or faith, since that is the only domain where dogmatism and willingness to believe even in the absence of evidence or when sufficient evidence is unavailable is considered a praiseworthy virtue, an act of piety. The Bible, in Hebrews 11-1, defines faith as “the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen.” Therefore, faith is the very antithesis of the sceptical attitude. The number of bizarre claims in the so-called Holy Scriptures and messages preached regularly in churches, mosques, and other religious centres which contradict common sense and well-established laws of science is staggering. In Nigeria and virtually all African countries, religion has stifled the capacity for critical thinking and the questioning attitude in the general population, including the educated elite, leading to the mass production of gullible superstitious individuals in all strata of the society. In the universities, the expanding eddies of religious dogma across board is very alarming and detrimental to the emergence of enlightened citizens with appropriate scientific outlook necessary for civilised behaviour and progress both at the personal and social levels. All manner of charlatans, fraudsters, and preachers of highfalutin nonsense masquerading as “men and women of God” continue to exploit the fears, insecurities, and gullibility of the people just because right from childhood the masses had been brainwashed to believe without question the contents of The Bible, The Koran, and their ordained interpreters. As a corollary, religion is the only subject where expression of reasonable doubt or challenging what is written in “holy books” is seen as a taboo or sacrilege that must be discouraged. A significant number of people have unwittingly destroyed, sometimes irreparably, their occupations, personal relationships, and health due to unquestioning adherence to religious dogma. The case of late Prof. Dora Akunyili, the globally celebrated former Director General of NAFDAC, is a tragic example of the horrible consequences of lack of healthy dose of scepticism towards faith, of believing sheepishly in purported supernatural intervention in human affairs even in situations where effective manmade solutions are available.
From the foregoing, it can be inferred that scepticism is a significant motivating factor, perhaps the centre of gravity, not just in serious philosophising but also for deep reflection about any aspect of reality and human existence in their incredibly diverse manifestations. Certainly, throughout history blind faith and dogmatism have done unspeakable harm to human civilisation. Dogmatic belief in heaven and hellfire, the idea that a certain deity, prophet, political ideology or religious doctrine is worth dying for, outrageous antediluvian blasphemy laws in Muslim majority countries, jungle justice leading to extrajudicial murders, cruel maltreatment and killing of children and adults accused of witchery, bloody conflicts in various parts of the world fuelled by ancient hatred and ignorant superstitious beliefs – indeed a vast majority of the evils human beings commit against one another – originated from the unquestioning acceptance of some unsubstantiated dogma or superstition. These evils would go down considerably if the attitude of scepticism, of suspending judgement when evidence is either unavailable or inconclusive, is widespread in a vast majority of the human population. If humanity is to eliminate or reduce to the barest minimum many of the manmade evils destroying the world today, particularly religious nonsense and belief systems that encourage corrosive egoism, hubris, discrimination, mutual distrust, jealousy, hatred, and war everyone must be encouraged to cultivate the sceptical or critical attitude. Specifically, right from the home children should be taught not to accept any proposition as true unless there is good evidence for it. At various levels of education teachers should reinforce this attitude by teaching their pupils and students the intellectual and practical advantages of asking probing questions, of forming opinions based on adequate evidence, and of changing one’s mind when superior evidence conflicts with his or her cherished beliefs. It is important to stress that that nothing under the sun is beyond the whetstone of criticism. If the habit of scepticism and questioning accepted beliefs becomes dominant worldwide, the benefits to humanity will be incalculable. In this regard, it is recommended that everyone should endeavour to imbibe the philosophical temperament or what Bertrand Russell referred to as “the habit of exact and careful thought,” more so in matters that have serious practical consequences for individuals and the society as a whole. The major lesson to be distilled from this discourse is encapsulated in the following words, “If you are not sure of the truth of any proposition or claim, do not act as if you are certain.” Another way of stating it is “Before acting on any belief that could have harmful consequences for yourself or others, consider the possibility that you might be mistaken.” A healthy dose of scepticism is an indispensable antidote to the extremely toxic venom of blind faith, superstition, and dogmatism.
•Anele is Professor of Philosophy, University of Lagos, Akoka
